Overview
A democracy since 1974 and a member of the EU since 1981, Greece is a relatively free country in terms of research and access to treatment. Assisted reproduction is commonly accepted and practiced. It is extensively regulated in liberal terms since 2005. Abortion was fully legalized in 1984. Before then, abortions were performed illegally. Koios, Veloyanni and Alvanos report that an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 illegal abortions were performed annually. Abortions are now performed on-demand in hospitals for women whose pregnancies have not exceeded twelve weeks. The timeframe is extended to nineteen weeks in the event of rape or incest and twenty-four weeks in the case of fetal abnormalities Parental permission is required for minors.
Religion is certainly important in Greek public life with 98 percent of the population identifying themselves as Greek Orthodox Christians. Indeed, the Orthodox Church enjoys certain government benefits. In 2010, Freedom House notes that its “special status is apparent in the influence it wields in politics, law, and society.” Sexuality and reproduction are certainly issues of great concern for Orthodox Church, which in 1988 set up the Bioethics Committee of the Church of Greece and sponsored the foundation of the Hellenic Center for Biomedical Ethics by the then archimandrite and now metropolitan of Mesogaia and Lavreotiki Nikolaos Hadjinikolaou (http://www.bioethics.org.gr/).
The influence of religion is more evident with regard to euthanasia policies. The Ad Hoc Committee on bioethical issues rejected all forms of causing death by human choice, characterizing euthanasia as a “Blasphemy” against God and an insult to the medical profession per se. Euthanasia in any form, active or passive, is in fact legally punished. Participation in suicide is a criminal offence punished according to article 301 of the Penal Code and advance directives are not enforceable. In recent years, the practice to “let patients die” has become common in Greek hospitals and physicians are required to respect a patient’s refusal of life-sustaining treatment. However, in emergency situations, the doctor must to provide the necessary treatment without consent (articles 441 and 473 of the Penal Code).
In 2010, Voultsos, Njau and Vlachou summarized the legal status of euthanasia in these terms:
…the following acts are not considered to be wrongful, not even in the beginning: (1) pure euthanasia, (2) passive euthanasia by consent, (3) abstinence of the physician from the artificial prolongation of life, as long as the patient has not expressed his opposition (or this in not even inferred). As for indirect active euthanasia, it is initially considered wrongful, but its wrongfulness is finally excused (when carried out on certain conditions). The following acts remain wrongful: (1) direct active euthanasia (disconnection from the life-support machine oscillates between a finally wrongful and not wrongful act), (2) passive euthanasia, when the patient is in a permanent state of incapacity to express his valid will, but it is possible to maintain the natural–biological function of the organism (i.e. there are prospects of improvement), (3) provision of substantial medical assistance to the painfully dying patient who wishes for his self-killing, to commit suicide. The same is true for the physician convincing the patient to commit suicide.
Research with embryo is also tightly regulated. The law prohibits human reproductive cloning, creation of chimeras or hybrids as well as research involving embryo culture for more than 14 days.
With regard to the availability of emergency contraception, mifepristone or RU-486 is marketed under the name of Mifegyne, Contraceptives, however, are not subsidized by the government and the UN reports that only 46 out of 76 patients have access to modern contraceptives.
Abortion
89 pts out of 100 / 100,00% complete
Abortion and contraception allow women to express their freedom of reproduction by exercising their right of self-determination over their bodies.
Measurement questions
Is abortion lawful to protect woman's life?
Yes
Is abortion lawful to protect woman's physical health?
Yes
Is abortion lawful to protect woman's mental health?
Yes
Is abortion lawful in the event the woman was raped?
Yes
Is abortion lawful in the event of fetal defects?
Yes
Does the law mandate that an abortion is performed at the mere request of a pregnant woman?
Yes
Is RU-486 (Mifepristone) approved or registered for use?
Yes and it is available with prescription
Are emergency contraception drugs lawfully available?
Yes, from a pharmacist without requiring a prescription
Are family planning services provided through government-run programs and facilities?
Yes, but with substantial limitations
Is spousal notification/permission required?
No
Assisted Reproduction
92 pts out of 100 / 100,00% complete
Assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) are the methods used to achieve pregnancy by artificial or partially artificial means. Access to assisted reproduction concerns our ability to expand our right to health by offering us access to treatment to overcome infertility.
Measurement questions
Is preimplantation genetic diagnosis permissible?
Yes with no restrictions
Is oocyte cryopreservation permissible?
Yes
Is embryo cryopreservation permissible for reproductive purposes?
Yes
Is sperm donation permissible?
Yes
Is oocyte donation permissible?
Yes
Are IVF surrogacy agreements enforceable?
Yes, commercial and not
Marital status requirements?
No
Do same-sex couples have access to ART?
Yes
Do single women have access to ART?
Yes
Are there any limits on the number of pre-embryos that can be transferred?
Yes
End of life
40 pts out of 100 / 100,00% complete
End of life decisions concern our ability to make choices concerning the end of our lives and take of the form of refusal of life sustaining treatment, being help in committing suicide, choosing euthanasia, and make choices that must be upheld even when the person becomes unconscious. As Young (2010) noted, "People have an interest in making important decisions about their lives in accordance with their own conception of how they want their lives to go."
Measurement questions
Is passive euthanasia lawful?
Yes
Is active euthanasia lawful?
Legally prohibited
Is physician-assisted suicide lawful?
Legally prohibited
Are advance directives (AD) enforceable?
No
Is a physician required to respect a patient's refusal of life-sustaining treatment?
Yes
Research with embryos
0 pts out of 100 / 0,00% complete
Research with embryos and pre-embryos as well as therapeutic cloning concerns scientists’ freedom to investigate human biology as well as patients’ freedom to access regenerative medicine treatments that may be developed as a result of research with human embryonic stem cells. Since the early 2000s, research with embryos has been at the center of an often-polarized debate about the nature and scope of scientific freedom.
Measurement questions
Is basic research using germline modification in human embryos/gametes permitted?
Is pre-clinical research using germline modification technologies in animals permitted?
Is clinical research using germline modification technologies in humans permitted?
Are clinical applications of research using germline modification technologies (i.e., to initiate a pregnancy with edited embryos or with edited gametes) permitted?
GM Crops
0 pts out of 100 / complete
GM crops have contributed significantly to modern agriculture. Plant breeding using genetic modification techniques has led to improving crops in more targeted ways than classical breeding techniques. GM crops acquire desirable characteristics, including pest and herbicide resistance, enhanced robustness against diseases, drought or water tolerance, and healthier profiles that can enhance nutrition.
Measurement questions
Is research on GMOs permitted in the laboratories?
Is notification to start research on GMOs in laboratories required?
Is research on GMOs frequent?
Are GM crop field trials (the limited release into the environment for research purposes) permitted?
Is authorization to start a GM crop field trial required?
Are GM crop field trials frequent?
Is cultivation of GM crops (for commercial purposes) in open field permitted?
Is authorization to start open field cultivation of GM crops required?
Is open field cultivation of GM crops frequent?
Can GM crop commodities harvested in other countries be imported?
Is authorization to import GM crop commodities required?
Is the import of GM crop commoties frequent?
Right To Science Indicators
Measurement questions
- Access to benefits
What is the total general government expenditure on education?
What is the expenditure on tertiary as % of government expenditure on education?
36.1
What is the the percentage of population ages 25 and over that attained or completed a doctoral degree or equivalent?
0.49
What is the percentage of population that uses the Internet?
69.09
What is the quality of math and science education on a scale from 1 to 7 being "excellent"?
4.4
To what extent is the Internet used in schools for learning purposes?
3.6
What is the scientific literacy of 15-year-old students as measured by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)(mean score)?
455
- Opportunities to participate
Does the law mandate nondiscrimination based on gender in hiring?
Yes
What is the percentage of females employed with advanced degrees out of total employed?
49.7
- Enabling environment
How many scientific and technical journal articles are published each year in physics, biology, chemistry, mathematics, clinical medicine, biomedical research, engineering and technology, and earth and space sciences?
10725.4
What is the percentage of GDP allocated to Research and Development?
0.96
How may published articles have received at least H citations in the period 1996–2014?
30.4
What is the quality of scientific research institutions?
3.9
To what extent do business and universities collaborate on research and development (R&D)?
2.5
What is the average university ranking score of countries based on their top 3 universities?
24.8
To what extent are scientists and engineers available?
5.2
How many professionals are employed as researchers?
7.1
How many professionals are employed by government as researchers?
21
- International cooperation
To what extent are talented people attracted from abroad?
1.9